In vitro production of trichothecenes and zearalenone by Fusarium isolates from equatorial barley (Hordeum vulgare l.) grown in Kenya

Fusarium head blight (scab) is a devastating disease of wheat and barley throughout the world. The disease has been reported worldwide wherever cereals are grown, cutting across diverse ecological and geographical distribution. In addition to being pathogenic to plants, which may cause severe crop yield reduction, many Fusarium species are also capable of producing mycotoxins deleterious to human health as secondary metabolites. Fusarium toxins are commonly detected in wheat, barley,maize, rice and beer. Traditionally malted barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is the principal ingredient in clear beer and Fusarium toxins incidences are of major concern. Moreover, the spent grain from the brewing industry is used as feed and presence of mycotoxins can lead to harmful effects on domestic animals and also find a way into the human food chain. Studies carried out in Kenya have revealed presence of various Fusarium species with ability to produce mycotoxins and presence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize and beer. Based on the ubiquitous nature of Fusarium mold and the fact that barley production takes place in maize and wheatgrowing areas, this study set out to investigate the occurrence of Fusarium molds in Equatorial barley grown in Kenya and the ability of the isolates to produce selected mycotoxins. Grain samples were obtained from newly delivered barley lots originating from two regions and stored grain awaiting malting after break of dormancy from Kenya Maltings Ltd., Nairobi. The Fusarium isolates were identified to species level based on cultural and morphological characteristics. Additionally, they were screened in-vitro on rice cultures for their ability to produce Type A trichothecenes (T–2 toxin, HT–2 toxin, Diacetoxyscirpenol), Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol and nivalenol) and Zearalenone. Samples from all sources were contaminated with Fusarium, but at varying magnitudes - 50%, 33.3% and 25% for barley kernels originating from Timau, Olchoro and in-storage grain with no common history of origin, respectively. The distribution of the species showed some regional specificity. F. graminearum and F. poae predominated in kernels sourced from Olchoro region. All strains of F. graminearum produced both deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. F. poae strains and F. chlamydosporum did not produce detectable amounts of the screened mycotoxins. However, two inconclusively identified isolatesof Fusarium spp. isolated from Timau samples produced deoxynivalenol only. The study revealed that a number of toxigenic Fusarium spp. do occur in Equatorial barley grown in Kenya

Antioxidative and radical scavenging activities of propolis extracts in food models

Propolis samples collected from Mwingi, Malindi, Uasin-gishu and Meru south districts in Kenya were extracted using ethanol and methanol. The methanol extracts were further partitioned into ethyl acetate, hexane and aqueous fractions. The extracts were concentrated and dried in vacuum evaporator. Their antioxidative activities were tested in linoleic acid-â-carotene system and in soybean oil. The extracts’ radical scavenging activities against 2,2–diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) were alsostudied. Significant differences were observed between the samples as well as within the samples’ various extracts. The ethanol extract of propolis (EEP) and the ethyl acetate fractions from all four samples had higher 2,2–diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazil (DPPH) radical scavenging activity compared to the aqueous and the hexane extracts at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml. Malindi EEP at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher radical scavenging activity (87.7%) than all the other EEP’s. The least radical scavenging activity was observed in Uasin-gishu EEP with73.3%. The Mwingi ethyl acetate extract at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml had 79.2% radical scavenging activity which was the highest observed amongst the ethyl acetate fractions and the least was in Uasin-gishu sample having 66.1% activity. The highest activity among the aqueous extracts was 7.1% in Meru South sample at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml. Radical scavenging activity did not differ in all four aqueous fractions. There was no significant difference (p < 0.05) observed in the antioxidation activity of Mwingi, Meru south and Malindi EEPP’s, in the linoleic acid-â-carotene system at a concentration of 500 ìg/ml. The EEP’s were the most active against oxidation of the system with a range of 61.7% in Uasin-gishu sample to 71.8% in Malindi sample while the aqueous was the least active with a range of 5.8% to 11.7% in Uasin-gishu and Malindi samples respectively. The EEP’s at a concentration of 1mg/ml showed greater activity against antioxidation of soybean oil compared to butylated hydroxyltoluene (BHT) at a concentration of 0.2 ìg/ml for thefirst 25 days of the test. After the 25th day, there was sharp increase in peroxide values in all the EEPs showing loss of antioxidation strength.Key words: Propolis, Radical scavenging, antioxidation activit

Factors associated with non adherence to regulations on sale of alcohol by alcohol outlets operators in Thika Municipality, Kiambu County

Objective: To determine factors associated with non-adherence of existing alcohol regulations and policies on alcohol sale in Thika municipality Kiambu County.Design: A descriptive cross-sectional study.Setting: Thika Municipality, Kiambu County, KenyaSubjects: Eighty nine (89) participants were enrolled in the study. Ten (10) Key Informant Interviews were conducted among the security personnel, health officers, managers and supervisors.Results: Out of the 89 outlet operators enrolled in the study, (70.8%) among therespondents were not aware of the alcohol control act. Association between marital status and non adherence of the act was significant (p=0.003). There was low knowledge of 5.6%, who were aware of when the alcohol act was implemented, majority who totaled to 70.8% were not aware on when the alcohol control policy came into existence. Majority of the respondent 62.9% reported not to adhere to the alcohol control act of 2010; also the study showed that 57.3% of the responded were not aware of measures to control illicit brew. From the In-depth interviews most of the respondents interviewed confirmed that many of the operators were not aware of the act and it was difficult to implement thus subjecting the consumers into alcohol abuse. They also confirmed that with lack of employment, many women engaged into the alcohol operations which also contributed to the breakdown of their families given the mode of operations.Conclusion: This study concludes that there is failure in enforcement and adherence of the 2010 alcohol regulations. The study recommends the review of the alcohol control act of 2010 to ensure tough measures and penalties are adapted to anyone who fails to adhere to the act. Also there is need for awareness to be initiated to ensure members are informed and adhere to the policy. Setting up of an independent unit that will be mandated to enforcement and adherence of the 2010 alcoholic act

Biosafety practices and biomedical hazards among the support staff of Kenyatta national hospital, Mbagathi district hospital and Kiambu district hospital in Kenya

Biomedical hazards, also known as infectious hazards or medical hazards are defined as hazards generated during the diagnosis, testing, treatment, research or production of biological products for humans or animals. This study aimed at determining biosafety practices and biomedical hazards among the support staff from Kenyatta National Hospital, Mbagathi District Hospital and Kiambu District Hospital. A descriptive study design was employed for this study to sample the support staff working in the three hospitals. The respondents were strictly the hospital support staff in cleaning, mortuary and handling of health care waste. Probability sampling method was used to select out the 400 respondents. Structured questionnaire was used for data collection which was analyzed using SPSS. Blood and blood products, tissues, sharps and used materials by patients were identified as the major biohazards to hospital support staff. Approximately 33 (63.5%) hospital support staff from Mbagathi District hospital, 35 (67.3%) from Kiambu District hospital and 195 (66.7%) from Kenyatta hospital agreed that they handled blood, sharps and other materials used by patients in the hospitals. The Pearson Chi‐Square Tests χ2 (8) =15.546; P=0.046 implied that the Handling blood, sharp or any other materials used by patients in hospital had association with the hospital the respondents came from. In conclusion the study has demonstrated that hospital support staff needs to be trained on biosafety issues especially medical waste management because their practices are below standards. Hospitals used in the study are facing many challenges because this sector is almost ignored in terms of safety of support staff, segregation, collection, transport, treatment and final disposal. The study recommends that all staff and waste handlers in each hospital should agree on responsibilities towards biosafety policy in Kenya.Key words: Biomedical hazards, biological products, biosafety, waste management

Bacterial vaginosis and associated risk factors in pregnant women attending Ante Natal Clinic at Pumwani Maternity Hospital –Kenya

Introduction: Bacterial vaginosis [BV] is a syndrome characterized by a shift in vaginal flora. It is a strong independent risk factor for adverse pregnancy outcomes, found in 9% to 23% of pregnant women. Not many studies on BV have been conducted among the pregnant women attending Pumwani Maternity Hospital in Kenya. This study defined the prevalence and factors for prevalence of BV in pregnant women attending Pumwani Maternity Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. Methods: One hundred and fifty women who attended the Pumwani Maternity Hospital Ante natal clinic formed the basis of the study. This study received ethical approval from the Pumwani Maternity Hospital ante natal department and KEMRI ethics committee. Vaginal swabs were obtained from all the 150 women who consented and detailed demographic, sexual and genital hygiene interviews were collected. BV was tested using both the Amsel and Nugent’s criteria. Results: Of 150 participants, the mean age was 26.02 years, [range 22 [16 – 38] years], 72.7% were aged 21- 30 years. Sixty eight percent were unemployed, 72.6% married, 20.7% reported previous STI including HIV, 74%, the age of sexual debut was less than 16 years; 78% had a regular sexual partner, 87.3% of them were circumcised male partners, 24% reported douching and 47.3% reported genital washing after sex. Twenty point seven percent had BV by Nugent’s criteria. Bacterial vaginosis was associated with having given birth only once [20.3% vs. 19.1%; p=0.03], more than one previous birth [19.2% vs. 19.1%; p=0.026], previous STI [50% vs. 19.4%; p=0.042] and non-circumcised male partners [18.3% vs. 36.8%; p=0.033]. Conclusion: Bacterial vaginosis is prevalent among pregnant women. The factors associated with BV include partners not being circumcised, primiparous and a history of previous STI infections

Shelflife of whole fresh Lake Malawi tilapia (Oreochromis species – Chambo) stored in ice

Lake Malawi Tilapia (chambo) fish species is widely consumed and forms the most important commercial fishery in Lake Malawi. However, as a highly perishable commodity, knowledge regarding how long fresh fish would remain in acceptable and safe condition in storage is indispensable for consumers and processors. Presently, no such information exists for the Lake Malawi Tilapia in Malawi. A study was therefore conducted to estimate shelflife of whole fresh Lake Malawi Tilapia stored in ice (0oC) for 21 days. Sensory, microbiological and pH analyses were conducted to describe changes in quality and freshness of the fish with storage time in ice. Shelflife of the fish was estimated between 16 and 18 days. A strong linear correlation (R2=0.95) was observed between sensory demerit scores and storage time in ice. Total bacteria viable counts and pH at the time of sensory rejection of the fish were 1.6×107 cfu/g/cm2 and5.84 respectively. Pseudomonas and Micrococcus bacteria were found in relatively high numbers throughout the storage period. The study demonstrated that like other tropical fish, Lake Malawi Tilapia has a relatively longer shelflife. The long storage life in ice of Lake Malawi Tilapia is advantageous to most small scale fresh fish sellers and processors especially from rural areas in Malawi who solely depend on ice as a sole and affordable way of preserving fresh fish.Key words: Shelflife, Tilapia, ice storag

High ethionamide resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains isolated in Kenya

Background: Increasing development of tuberculosis (TB) resistance to the currently available drugs including second-line anti-TB drugs that are being used for treatment of Multi-Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB) patients has frustrated efforts to control TB worldwide. Ethionamide (Eth) is one of the drugs used in the regimen for treatment of these patients. Objective: To determine level of Ethionamide resistance among second-line anti-tuberculosis drugs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) strains isolated in Kenya. Design: A retrospective lab-based study involving archived strains from previous studies carried out at the Centre for Respiratory Diseases Research (CRDR), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) from 2002 to 2007. Setting: Centre for Respiratory Diseases Research (CRDR), Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI). Methods: A total of 216 MTB strains with pre-determined first-line drug susceptibility testing (DST) results were used including 78 first-line resistant to individual and combined drugs, and 138 susceptible to streptomycin, rifampicin, isoniazid and ethambutol. The strains were subjected to DST to ethionamide among other second-line. Results: Thirty two [32/216 (14.8%)] strains showed resistance to second-line drugs. Resistance to Eth was the highest [18/32 (56.3%)] including co-resistance with isoniazid [8/18 (44.4%)]. Nine [9/18 (50%)] strains were fully resistant and 9 [9/18 (50%)] were intermediate resistant to Eth. Conclusion: Unexplainable high levels of Eth resistance is a cause for concern. This will impact negatively on the outcome of management of MDR-TB especially in Kenya where the use of this drug is almost mandatory. Close monitoring of Eth before initiating individual patient management may be necessary. Keywords: Ethionamide, Resistant, MDR-TB

Characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern to commonly prescribed antimicrobials of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in patients attending Thika district Hospital - Kenya, 2014.

Background: Diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) are associated with outbreaks of severe diarrhea and multiple drug resistance. We characterize DEC among diarrhoeal patients attending Thika Hospital and determine their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among patients of all ages seeking diarrhea treatment. Stool samples were collected, inoculated on bacterial differential media for growth of enteric pathogens, characterized and antimicrobial susceptibility of DEC isolates determined.Results: A total of 402 stool samples were cultured. E. coli was isolated from 269, of which 72 (27%) were DEC; 60 (83.3%) enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), 6 (8.3%) enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and 6 (8.3%) enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC). Of the 72, 58% were female, median age was 8 (IQR: 2-28) years, 75% did not boil water and 100% did not treat water. Twenty five (35%) patients with DEC were under-five years. Drinking un-boiled water (OR: 2.51, 95% CI: 1.36-4.61) was associated with having DEC. All DEC isolates were sensitive to cefoxitin, meropenem, amikacin, gentamicin and ciprofloxacin. They were resistance to ampicillin (92%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (92%) and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (85%).Conclusion: The predominant DEC strain was EAEC. High resistant to ampicillin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid were observed. All isolates were sensitive to ciprofloxacin and gentamicin.Keywords: Diarrhea, E. coli, Diarrheagenic E. coli, Characterization, KenyaAfr J Health Sci. 2016; 29(1):25-3

Fish as Reservoirs and Vectors of Vibrio cholerae

Vibrio cholerae, the etiologic agent of cholera, is autochthonous to various aquatic environments, but despite intensive efforts its ecology remains an enigma. Recently, it was suggested that copepods and chironomids, both considered as natural reservoirs of V. cholerae, are dispersed by migratory waterbirds, thus possibly distributing the bacteria between water bodies within and between continents. Although fish have been implicated in the scientific literature with cholera cases, as far as we know, no study actually surveyed the presence of the bacteria in the fish. Here we show for the first time that fish of various species and habitats contain V. cholerae in their digestive tract. Fish (n = 110) were randomly sampled from freshwater and marine habitats in Israel. Ten different fish species sampled from freshwater habitats (lake, rivers and fish ponds), and one marine species, were found to carry V. cholerae. The fish intestine of Sarotherodon galilaeus harboured ca. 5×103 V. cholerae cfu per 1 gr intestine content—high rates compared with known V. cholerae cfu numbers in the bacteria's natural reservoirs. Our results, combined with evidence from the literature, suggest that fish are reservoirs of V. cholerae. As fish carrying the bacteria swim from one location to another (some fish species move from rivers to lakes or sea and vice versa), they serve as vectors on a small scale. Nevertheless, fish are consumed by waterbirds, which disseminate the bacteria on a global scale. Moreover, V. cholerae isolates had the ability to degrade chitin, indicating a commensal relationship between V. cholerae and fish. Better understanding of V. cholerae ecology can help reduce the times that human beings come into contact with this pathogen and thus minimize the health risk this poses

Setting a baseline for global urban virome surveillance in sewage

The rapid development of megacities, and their growing connectedness across the world is becoming a distinct driver for emerging disease outbreaks. Early detection of unusual disease emergence and spread should therefore include such cities as part of risk-based surveillance. A catch-all metagenomic sequencing approach of urban sewage could potentially provide an unbiased insight into the dynamics of viral pathogens circulating in a community irrespective of access to care, a potential which already has been proven for the surveillance of poliovirus. Here, we present a detailed characterization of sewage viromes from a snapshot of 81 high density urban areas across the globe, including in-depth assessment of potential biases, as a proof of concept for catch-all viral pathogen surveillance. We show the ability to detect a wide range of viruses and geographical and seasonal differences for specific viral groups. Our findings offer a cross-sectional baseline for further research in viral surveillance from urban sewage samples and place previous studies in a global perspective